Ethar's note

Hello everyone

This post includes my notes for our next essay about accent and dialect

There are two main things that distinguish an accent from a dialect.

-First, an accent refers to the Phonology and Phonetics of speech, that is, the sounds and sound patterns, whereas a dialect refers to the entire linguistic system.

-Second, a dialect also involves some notion of a speech community. For example, if someone from India were to move to Dubuque and start speaking English, we'd refer to her speech as foreign accented speech.

Most people think of an accent as something that other people have. In some cases, they speak disparagingly about one accent compared with another. The truth is that everyone has an accent, 
because an accent is simply a way of pronouncing words.

When it comes to changes in vocabulary in different regions, then you’re talking about dialect. Dialect refers to differences in accent, grammar and vocabulary among different versions of a language.

Dialects take time to develop and also require that the group of people live close together while at the same time having some form of isolation from other populations. This isolation can be geographical, political, or religious amongst other forms.

There is a popular belief that dialects are simply corruptions of "real" or "good" English that reflect basic ignorance of well-known grammar rules. But the truth is that dialect structures are in themselves quite natural and neutral. Their social impact comes solely from their association with different groups in our society. If people belong to a socially oppressed group, they can count on having their language stigmatized; if they belong to a prestigious group, their language will carry prestige value.

reference;

http://www.tolerance.org/magazine/number-18-fall-2000/feature/everyone-has-accent

https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-accent-and-dialect

Elaf's notes (accents Vs Dailects)

Good Evening Friends,

here where I want to post my notes for our next essay which is about accents and dialects,

- An accent is defined as the phonetic traits of an individual’s native language carried over into a second non-native language.

- dialect is a variation of a language spoken in a given geographical region.

*One of the most challenging problems in the classroom, and in the field of Speech Pathology is the foreign accent. 

-Students and/or parents with foreign accents may be difficult to understand. 

- One of the keys to understanding an accent is understanding the major factors involved.

HOW CAN ONE LANGUAGE SOUND SO DIFFERENT?

 It’s quite amazing that one language has so many variations. 

There are components which make dialects and accents unique. 

There are too many specific accents to describe, so the following information is an overview:

1. Prosody/Intonation: Languages have a variety of rhythm patterns, loudness levels, tonal variations and inflections.

 2. Articulation: The English language contains specific speech sounds, as do all other world languages. 

3. Vowels: Although most languages share many of the same vowels, the exact positioning of oral structures or stress placed when producing vowels often varies. 

4. Grammar: Syntax (grammar) patterns are very different across languages. For example, adjectives are placed after the noun in Spanish (ex., “boca grande”)

*In Saudi Arabia for example, accents and dialects vary from region to region and country to country.

* In the US also there is many 

-The largest dialect of standard English is known as “Black Vernacular English" (BVE). BVE was originated in the African-American Population.

-Another nationally recognized dialect is called “Boston English” which is the dialect common to most Tri-state, New York and New Jersey residents.

- http://www.talkinwithtwang.com/2016/02/lets-discuss-accents-dialects-speech.html?inf_contact_key=19a1448dde050ed4a30f6785299154df4fe083cc19c53f32f62876a91250466b

What's the difference between dialect and accent?

A common mistake is to confuse a dialect with an accent , muddling up the difference between words people use and the sounds they make, their pronunciation. If vocabulary and grammar are being considered alongside pronunciation, then ‘dialect’ is a reasonable term to use. But often, when claiming to discuss a dialect, someone will concentrate just on pronunciations. If what is being spoken about are sounds alone—that is, accent—then the area of language study is rather pronunciation, or phonology .

Accent, or pronunciation, is a special element of a dialect that needs separate attention to be properly understood. A famous distinction in pronunciation in England is the so-called ‘BATH vowel’, the quality of the ‘a’ sound differing between north and south. For example, someone from Leeds, in the north of England, would typically pronounce ‘bath’ with the short ‘a’ of ‘cat’, whereas someone from Oxford, in the south of England, would typically pronounce ‘bath’ with the long ‘a’ of ‘father’. Another distinction, still more significant on the world stage, concerns the issue of  rhoticity, i.e. whether or not a written ‘r’ is sounded when it follows a vowel, for example in the words ‘car’ and ‘butter’. Whilst most people in England and Wales do not pronounce the ‘r’ (and are therefore  non- rhotic), many in South-West England and parts of Lancashire do. In this they are joined by most Scots and Irish speakers of English, and by the majority of North Americans. Rhoticity is in fact numerically and geographically the dominant form in world terms.

Dialect 

A dialect is a variety of language differing in vocabulary and gramma as well as pronunciation . Dialects are usually spoken by a group united by geography or class.

Accent 

When a standard language and pronunciation are defined by a group, an accent may be any pronunciation that deviates from that standard. 

References:

www.voxforge.org/home/docs/faq/faq/what-is-the-difference-between-a-dialect-and-an-accent

www.oxforddictionaries.com/words/what-is-the-difference-between-dialect-and-accent

American vs British notes

Good evening every one, this my note for our third topics (The differences between American and British English in both spoken and written moods).

- According to Webster, British English definitely build the foundation stone for American English. In Webster’s work Dissertations on the English language (1789), he confessed that American English is "an inheritance which the Americans have received from their British parents.”

- The awareness of the peculiarities and differences between British and American language is very important not only for the native speakers of these two different varieties of English, but also for the teachers and also the learners of English.

-lexical differences: As a percentage of the total English vocabulary the number of words which are used only in one or the other country is very small, but the problem for learners of English is that these words are among the most common in the language. There are many words that are used almost exclusively by Americans which are understood by most Britons, and vice versa. But there are others which can cause difficulty.

 - For example, most Britons know that Americans call biscuits cookies and flats apartments, but not so many know what an alumnus or a fender is. Similarly, Americans know that what they call their yard is called a garden in Britain and that trucks are lorries, but common British English words like plimsolls or oflicence may mean nothing to them.

-accent: Prior to the Revolutionary War and American independence from the British in 1776, American and British accents were similar. Both were rhotic i.e. speakers pronounced the letter R in hard. Since 1776, the accents diverged but English accent in America has changed less drastically than accents in Britain. To be fair, both American and British English have several types of accents and there is no one true American or British accent.

-Grammar: In British English the present perfect is used to express an action that has occurred in the recent past that has an effect on the present moment. For example: I've misplaced my pen. Can you help me find it? In American English, the use of the past tense is also permissible:I misplaced my pen. Can you help me find it? In British English, however, using the past tense in this example would be considered incorrect.

reference:

http://www.diffen.com/difference/American_English_vs_British_English

http://www.academia.edu/6585455/British_English_vs_American_English

Elaf's notes /3rd topic

Hello there,

here is my notes for tomorrow's lecture assignment

We will discuss the differences between British and American English in both written and spoken forms.

In general most British and Americans can understand each other without too much difficulty. 

They watch each other’s TV shows, sing each other’s songs, and read each other’s books.

but there are some differences between them ,such as in :

1- Vocabulary  (e.g elevator & lift)

2- Collective Nouns (as singular or plural)

3- Auxiliary verbs (e.g shall,will)

4- Past Tense Verbs (-ed , -t endings)

5-Tag Questions which is  Americans use it more than British

6-Spelling  where we find so much many differences between British and American English (color-colour, favour-favor..etc)

Re: http://learningenglish.voanews.com/

3rd topic's notes

Hello everyone 

This is my notes about our new topic (Differences between British and American English in both Spoken and Written Modes).

The two varieties of English most widely found in print and taught around the world are British and American - it is therefore important for teachers to be aware of the major differences between the two. And while lexical differences are the easiest ones to notice, a knowledge of grammatical and phonological differences can be useful not only for teachers to be aware of, but also to be able to deal with should they come up in class.

Which is better?

An important point to make is that different doesn’t mean wrong. Comments such as “American English is inferior to British English”, or “American English is better than British English” have no solid basis other than the speaker’s opinion. The truth is that no language or regional variety of language is inherently better or worse than another. They are just different. Students will often have very firm beliefs on which English they think is better/easier to understand/clearer etc. While it may be true for that particular individual, there is no evidence to suggest that one variety is easier to learn or understand than the other.

 Exams and essay writing

In most international exams, both varieties of English are accepted. However, while writing for an international exam (or writing in English generally) students should try to remain consistent. That means if they favour (or favor) American spelling and grammar, they should stick to that convention for the whole piece of writing.

Reference: 

http://www.onestopenglish.com/grammar/grammar-reference/american-english-vs-british-english/differences-in-american-and-british-english-grammar-article/152820.article

Ethar's Notes

 Hello everyone,

I have gathered some information for our essay about language function:      

1- The function of speech include generally two types:

- Affective (or social) function. 

- Referential (or informative) function.

2-While speech is always spoken language, Robins (19891: 78) defines speech as follows:

“one human being, by movements beginning at his diaphragm and involving ‘various parts of his chest, throat, mouth, and nasal passages creates disturbances in the air around him, which within a limited distances  from  him  have  a  perceptible effect on the ear-drums and through them on the brains of other people, and the hearer can,   if  they belong  to the  same

3-In general linguistics, speech can be studied in phonetics and pronunciation. In sociolinguistics, it is related to the culture of community where the speech is produced and functional and it called that speech functions. In this case, body language may involve.

4-When we communicate with other people, we are always trying to do something with our language--we may want to invite someone, offend someone, or compliment someone. Whenever we speak, our language has these so-called speech functions.

5-We use four basic speech functions in conversation:

	Statements: Bozo was helping her.
	Questions: Who was helping her?
	Commands: Help me!
	Offers: Can I help you?

We use these basic speech functions to interact and negotiate with others. Almost all of the language we use in our everyday interactions with others can be accounted for by these four basic speech functions.

If the talk is about information, then we are either giving information (making Statements) or we are demanding information (asking Questions).If the interaction is not about information but about obtaining goods or services, then we are either giving goods or services (making Offers) or demanding goods or services (making Commands)

Reference\

http://jlt-polinema.org/?tag=speech-function 

https://www.tesol.org/enhance-your-career/career-development/beginning-your-career/teaching-english-as-a-foreign-language-questions-and-answers/tefl-q-and-a-chapter-5-

http://www.fe.hku.hk/telec/pgram/5-gr/522f/522-014.htmteaching-speech-functions

Elaf's Notes

Hello there, here is my notes for tomorrow's lecture which is about language function:

 -Language serves a range of functions.

 -It is usually adjusted the speech to suit the social context of speech. 

-There are a number of ways of categorizing the functions of speech: 

1-Expressive utterances (express the speaker’s feelings)

e.g. I’m feeling great today.

 2_ Directive utterances (used to get someone to do something)

e.g. clear the table. 

3_ Referential utterances (provide information) 

e.g. At the third stroke it will be three 12 o’clock precisely. 

4_ Metalinguistic utterances (comment on language itself) 

e.g. ‘hegemony’ is not a common word.

5_Poetic utterances (focus on aesthetic features of language)

 e.g. a poem, an ear-catching motto, 

a rhyme, peter piper picked a peek of pickled peppers.

6_ Phatic utterances (express solidarity and empathy with others)

e.g. Hi, how are you, lovely day isn’t it?

_  Any utterances may in fact express more than one function

 _and any function may be expressed by a stretch of discourse which doesn’t exactly coincide with an utterance.

_ They seem to be very fundamental functions of language, perhaps because they derive from the basic components of any interaction

- the speaker (expressive), the addressee (directive) and the message (referential).

REFERENCE 

Allen and Corder (ed.). 1975. Papers in Applied Linguistics Language Teaching. 

An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. London and New York: Longman. 

http://www.diditlinguist.blogspot.com/2013/05/speech-functions-politeness-and-cross.html

http://www.jlt-polinema.org/?tag=politeness

Speech function *notes*

Hello everyone.

This week our topic is about The Speech Function.

I'm going write some notes related to our topic and I hope it be useful.

1- Language serves a range of functions. It is usually adjusted the speech to suit the social context of speech. The language we talk to a child may be different from the language we talk to our customer or colleague though the purpose is the same. The different purposes of talk can also affect the form of language and the variety of ways.  

2- Speech Functions for Sociolinguistics 

Conveying Information and Expressing Social Relationships

1.  Expressive  (express speaker's feelings e.g. I feel great today.)

2.  Directive  (get others to do things e.g. Clean up your room.)

3.  Referential (provide information e.g. The apples are on the table.)

4.  Metalinguistic (comments on language e.g. Nouns can be mass or count.)

5.  Poetic (aesthetic language--poems, mottos, rhymes e.g. A stitch in time saves nine.)

6.  Phatic (language for solidarity and empathy e.g. Yo, bro. Put 'er there.)

References:

1- http://jlt-polinema.org/?tag=speech-function

2- users.clas.ufl.edu/rthompso/speechfunctions.html

Age differences in sociolinguistic

Hello everyone.

I'm going to write notes about age differences in sociolinguistic. 

I read many information we can summarize them in points.

1- Age-variation: is a stable variation which varies within a population based on age. That is, speakers of a particular age will use a specific linguistic form in successive generations. 

2- Recent longitudinal studies in sociolinguistics have confirmed that some adults change their speech as they age, and that changes can occur at many levels of the grammar. 

3- We find that children have linguistics mistakes because they imitate adults speech. When they grow up their speech becomes closely as adults' speech. 

4- Soci- olinguists have attempted to classify the scenarios in which individual linguistic change is possible.

5- The term ‘age grading’ has been most frequently applied to a subset of cases in which the individual responds to the pressures of the standard language market by mark- ing the transition to middle adulthood with more conservative speech patterns than they had previously employed as adolescents and young adults.

Reference:

Age Grading in Sociolinguistic Theory. By Suzanne Evans Wagner. Michigan State University.

beginning notes

Hello everyone, I have started to read about the topic we have   chosen and begin to taking small notes as a start. I focused on the gender differences in sociolinguistic 

1- the definition of gender is generally either the male or female division of a species, especially as differentiated by social and cultural roles and behaviour.

2-Language and gender itself is an area of study within sociolinguistic 

3-The linguistics forms used by women and men contrast in many different ways . 

4-it is claimed that women are more linguistically polite than men .

5- for example if you come cross these two questions:

• oh dear, who left the ice-cream outside the fridge, again?
• damn! who left the ice-cream outside the fridge, again?

.you will easily recognise the gender for the two question from the use of forms 

6- the English language has three gender specific pronouns; he (masculine), she (feminine), and it (neuter used for objects). 

 reference:

1- Sociolinguistic (Sex and Age)Published by Astri Situmorang in http://www.scribd.com/doc/135070606/Sociolinguistic-Sex-and-Age#scribd

2- language and gender: an advanced resource book by Jane sunderland.

3-http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/gender

.I will update this page with my additional note soon, if you have any comment feel free to write it

our topic

Hello

First, let me show our topic that we would discuss within Sociolinguistics lecture Inshallah,

we want to discuss Gender and Age in sociolinguistics in different ways.

we hope that you'll enjoy with us.

the particpants :

_Elaf Ali.

_Nourah Aldhwyan.

_Ethar Almansour.

and here we will share with you our ideas and referncess.

*If you have any comment or suggestion feel free to write down .